Table 1. HKE Consonantal Features Considered in the Current Study

Consonantal Feature Brief Definition Related Literature Examples from Data
TH Stopping/Fronting Substitution of voiced and voiceless dental fricative /ð/ and /θ/ with [d] and [f] respectively Deterding et al. (2008), Hansen Edwards (2018) Frequently in the onset position, e.g., the, their; sometimes in coda position, e.g., with, growth.Abundant data on functional words, e.g., the, that.
L Vocalization 1. Using a full vowel [o] or [u] to replace coda /l/2. Deletion of coda /l/ Deterding et al. (2008), Setter et al. (2010) Frequently in words ending with /əl/, e.g., normal
[n, l]/[s, ʃ] Conflation /n/ and /l/, /s/ and /ʃ/ are in free variation in onset position. Hung (2000) /n-l/ conflation is more frequent than /s, ʃ/ e.g., line /laɪn/ → [naɪn]
/r/, /v/, /w/ Substitution /r/ /w/ and /v/ are pronounced interchangeably in any word position. Hung (2000), Sewell & Chan (2010) Tendency leans towards a substitution from /v/ towards [w] and /r/ towards [w], e.g., invite /ɪnˈvaɪt/ → [inwite]
CCM Modification of consonant clusters with either deletion or substitution Chan & Li (2000), Sewell & Chan (2010) Frequently in onset position and coda position (with/without suffixes), e.g., most /məʊst/ → [məʊs], contacts /ˈkɒn.tæktz/ → [ˈkɒn.tæt]